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There are sceptics foretelling the doom awaiting those who attempt getting there cancer treatment taken care of out of certain ' advanced' countries. On one hand, for example,in USA, the FDA stalls on approving cancer treatments available in other countries with great success, while on the other politicians debate over the successful use of stem cells in cancer patients. The unfortunate sufferers are the patients who are left to suffer in fright needlessly. Let us introduce you to the latest techniques being used around the world. Stereotactic Radio surgery and RadiotherapyThis is a non-invasive radiation technique. It is used to treat various types of intracranial lesions like arteriovenous malformation, meningiomas and acoustic schwamins. This is usually done where risks of open surgery offer unacceptable odds. Linear accelerator assisted stereo tactic radio surgery is a widely accepted form of treatment and is extremely cost-effective. Through this procedure, deep seated lesions can be identified, visualized, analyzed and treated precisely. IMRTOur partner hospitals are among the pioneers to offer IMRT (Intensity Modulated Radiotherapy) to the patients. Special type of radiotherapies like Whole Skin Electron Irradiation or Whole Body Irradiation too are carried out. These are carried out in support of the treatment of Leukemia or Skin Lymphoma patients. IMRT is an enormously powerful tool in experienced hands of expert radiation oncologists. Several forms of HPI are being used at our hospitals. The latest development is modulation of radiation intensity with Multi leaf Collimator. Bone Marrow TransplantntationBone marrow transplants have been performed to treat conditions like acute myeloid leukemia, lymphatic leukemia, myeloma and Hodgkin's disease. Our partner hospitals perform hi-tech BMT, both allogenic and auto logous BMTs. Cord Blood Cell TransplantationUtilizing umbical cord blood in the treatment of leukemia and post cancer surgery.Stem Cell Based Cancer Treatments Stem cell therapy can be defined as a part of a group of new techniques, or technologies that rely on replacing diseased or dysfunctional cells with healthy, functioning ones. These new techniques are being applied experimentally to a wide range of human disorders, including many types of cancer, neurological diseases such as Parkinson's disease, spinal cord injuries, and diabetes. Our partner hospital has a center with one of the most accomplished team of stem cell research leaders. These scientists are exploring the full ability of stem cells to transform medicine and offer new hope to millions of people. Other TreatmentsBrachytherapyBrachytherapy is a form of radiotherapy where a radioactive source is placed inside or next to the sealed source radiotherapy area requiring treatment. It is also known as endocurietherapy. Conversely, external beam radiotherapy, or teletherapy, is the application of radiation that has been externally produced by alinear accelerator. Brachytherapy is commonly used to treat localized and cancers of the head and neck. Brachy is from a Greek word for "short", so brachytherapy roughly translated is short distance therapy. Brachytherapy can be broadly sub divided into four main types: Mold brachytherapy :In this superficial tumours can be treated using sealed sources placed close to the skin. Dosimetry is often performed with reference to the Manchester system; a rule-based approach designed to ensure that the dose to all parts of the target volume is within 10% of the prescription dose. Surface Applicator is usually called Strontium plaque therapy. It is used for very superficial lesions less than 1 mm thick. The plaque is a hollow, thin silver casing that encloses a radioactive Strontium-90 powdered salt. The beta (electron) particles produced from Strontium's radioactive decay have a very shallow penetration. Typically the Sr90 plaque is placed on the bed of a resected pterygium. A stat dose of around 10-12 Gy is delivered by timing the contact. As the electrons only penetrate a few mm of air, radiation protection issues are slightly less but very different to other radiation sources. Cleaning the plaques that are placed on the eye sclera is required but must be gentle because the silver casing is thin and easily damaged .Strontium belongs to the same chemical class as Calcium, i.e., an alkaline earth metal, and so will co-locate in the bone if any strontium salt makes contact with the eye and is absorbed. Operators can prevent exposure to the beta rays by holding the applicator to face away from their bodies.
Breast CancerAlso called: Breast carcinomaBreast cancer affects one in eight women during their lives. For example, in the United States, breast cancer kills more women than any cancer except lung cancer. No one knows why some women get breast cancer, but there a number of risk factors. Risks that you cannot change include
Other risks include being overweight, using hormone replacement therapy, taking birth control pills, drinking alcohol, not having children or having your first child after age 35 or having dense breasts. Symptoms of breast cancer may include a lump in the breast, a change in size or shape of the breast or discharge from a nipple. Breast self-exam and mammography can help find breast cancer early when it is most treatable. Treatment may consist of radiation, lumpectomy, mastectomy, chemotherapy and hormone therapy. Mencan have breast cancer, too, but the number of cases is smallMammogramsA mammogram is an x-ray of the breast. A diagnostic mammogram is used to diagnose breast disease in women who have breast symptoms. Screening mammograms are used to look for breast disease in women who are asymptomatic; that is, those who appear to have no breast problems. Screening mammograms usually involve 2 views (x-ray pictures) of each breast. Women who are breast-feeding can still get mammograms, although these are probably not quite as accurate. For some women, such as those with breast implants (for augmentation or as reconstruction after mastectomy), additional pictures may be needed to include as much breast tissue as possible. Breast implants make it harder to see breast tissue on standard mammograms, but additional x-ray pictures with implant displacement and compression views can be used to more completely examine the breast tissue. If you have implants it is important that you have your mammograms done by someone skilled in the techniques used for women with implants. Signs and symptoms of breast cancerAlthough widespread use of screening mammograms has increased the number of breast cancers found before they cause any symptoms, some breast cancers are not found by mammograms, either because the test was not done or because even under ideal conditions mammograms cannot find every breast cancer. The most common sign of breast cancer is a new lump or mass. A mass that is painless, hard, and has irregular edges is more likely to be cancerous, but some rare cancers are tender, soft, and rounded. For this reason, it is important that any new mass, lump, or breast change is checked by a health care professional with experience in diagnosis of breast diseases. Other signs of breast cancer include a generalized swelling of part of a breast (even if no distinct lump is felt), skin irritation, rash, dimpling, nipple pain or retraction (turning inward), redness or scaliness of the nipple or breast skin, or a discharge other than breast milk. Sometimes a breast cancer can spread to underarm lymph nodes and cause swelling there even before the original tumor in the breast tissue is large enough to be felt. Swollen lymph nodes should also be reported to your doctor. Clinical breast examA clinical breast exam (CBE) is an examination of your breasts by a health professional, such as a doctor, nurse practitioner, nurse, or physician assistant. For this exam, you undress from the waist up. The health professional will first look at your breasts for changes in size or shape. Then, using the pads of the fingers, the examiner will gently feel (palpate) your breasts. Special attention will be given to the shape and texture of the breasts, location of any lumps, and whether such lumps are attached to the skin or to deeper tissues. The area under both arms will also be examined. The CBE is a good time for your health professional to teach you how to be aware of changes in your breasts and to teach breast self-exam (BSE) techniques if you wish to do BSE. Ask your doctor or nurse about how to be aware of breast changes and to teach you and watch your technique Newer technologies for breast cancer screeningMeammography is the current standard test for breast cancer screening. MRI is also recommended along with mammograms for some women at high risk for breast cancer. Other tests, such as ultrasound, are now being studied as wll. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI):For certain women at high risk for breast cancer, screening MRI is recommended along with a yearly mammogram. MRI is not generally recommended as a screening tool by itself, as it may miss some cancers that mammograms would detect. MRI uses magnets and radio waves, instead of x-rays, to produce very detailed, cross-sectional images of the body. The most useful MRI exams for breast imaging use a contrast material (gadolinium DTPA) that is injected into a small vein in the arm before or during the exam. This improves the ability of the MRI to clearly show breast tissue details. While MRI is more sensitive in detecting cancers than mammograms, it also has a higher false-positive rate (where the test finds something that turns out not to be cancer), which results in more recalls and biopsies. This is why it is not recommended as a screening test for women at average risk of breast cancer, as it would result in unneeded biopsies and other tests in a large portion of these women. Just as mammography uses x-ray machines designed especiallammograms because it is widely available, non-invasive, and less expensive than other options. However, the effectiveness of an ultrasound test depends on the operator’s level of skill and experience. Although ultrasound is less sensitive than MRI (that is, it detects fewer tumors), it has the advantage of being more available and less expensive. Ductogram:This test, also called a galactogram, is sometimes helpful in determining the cause of bloody nipple discharge. In this test a thin plastic tube is placed into the opening of the duct at the nipple. A small amount of contrast medium is injected that outlines the shape of the duct on an x-ray image, which will show if there is a mass inside the duct. Full-field digital mammograms (FFDM):Full field digital mammography is similar to standard mammography in that x-rays are used to produce an image of your breast. The differences are in the way the image is recorded, viewed by the doctor, and stored. Standard mammograms are recorded on large sheets of photographic film. Digital mammograms are recorded and stored on a computer. After the exam, the doctor can view them on a computer screen and adjust the image size, brightness, or contrast to see certain areas more clearly. Digital images can also be sent electronically to another site for a remote consult with breast specialists. While many centers do not offer the digital option at this time, it is expected to become more widely available in the future. Because digital mammograms cost more than standard mammograms, studies are now under way to determine which form of mammogram will benefit more women in the long run. Some studies have found that women who have FFDM have to return less often for additional imaging tests because of inconclusive areas on the original mammogram. A recent large study from the National Cancer Institute found that FFDM was more accurate in finding cancers in women younger than 50 and in women with dense breast tissue, although the rates of inconclusive results were similar between FFDM and film mammography. It is important to remember that standard film mammography also is effective for these groups of women, and that they should not miss their regular mammogram if digital mammography is not available. Computer-aided detection and diagnosis (CAD):Over the past 2 decades, computer-aided detection and diagnosis (CAD) has been developed to help radiologists detect suspicious changes on mammograms. This is done most commonly with screen-film mammograms and less often with digital mammograms. Generally the computer device will scan the mammogram first. It can find tumors that the radiologist can’t spot. The radiologist, knowing the results of the CAD, will then review the films to look for lesions the CAD missed. The radiologist will then decide the seriousness of the lesions the CAD found. Early research results suggest that CAD systems help radiologists diagnose more early stage cancers than mammograms alone. Scintimammogy to image the breasts, breast MRI also requires special equipment. Higher quality images are produced by dedicated breast MRI equipment than by machines designed for head, chest, or abdominal MRI scanning. However, many hospitals and imaging centers do not have dedicated breast MRI equipment available. It is important that screening MRIs are done at facilities that are capable of performing an MRI-guided breast biopsy at the time of the exam if anything abnormal is found. Otherwise, the scan will need to be repeated at another facility at the time of the biopsy. MRI is also more expensive than mammography. Most major insurance companies will likely pay for these screening tests if a woman can be shown to be at high risk, but it's not yet clear if all companies will. At this time there are concerns about costs of and limited access to high-quality MRI breast screening services for women at high risk of breast cancer. Breast ultrasound:Ultrasound, also known as sonography, is an imaging method in which high-frequency sound waves are used to look inside a part of the body. A handheld instrument placed on the skin transmits the sound waves through the breast. Echoes from the sound waves are picked up and translated by a computer into an image that is displayed on a computer screen. You are not exposed to radiation during this test. Breast ultrasound is sometimes used to evaluate breast problems that are found during a screening or diagnostic mammogram or on physical exam. Breast ultrasound is not routinely used for screening. Some studies have suggested that ultrasound may be a helpful addition to mammography when screening women with dense breast tissue (which is hard to evaluate with a mammogram), but the use of ultrasound instead of mammograms is not recommended. Ultrasound is useful for evaluating some breast masses and is the only way to tell if a suspicious area is a cyst without placing a needle into it to aspirate (pull out) fluid. Cysts cannot be accurately diagnosed by physical exam alone. Breast ultrasound may also be used to help doctors guide a biopsy needle into some breast lesions. Ultrasound has become a valuable tool to use along with mraphy: In scintimammography, a radioactive tracer is injected into a vein to detect breast cancer cells. The tracer attaches to breast cancers and is detected by a special camera. This is a very new technique and is still considered experimental. It may or may not be helpful in evaluating abnormal mammograms. For more information about these and other breast imaging tests, see the American Cancer Society document, "Mammograms and Other Breast Imaging Procedures." If you think you are at higher risk for developing breast cancer, talk to your doctor about what is known about these tests and their potential benefits, limitations, and harms. Then make a decision together about what is best for you. Breast cancer treatmentTypically, treatment of breast cancer will involve surgery followed by a combination of chemotherapy, hormonal therapy and radiation. However, treatment can vary greatly from patient to patient depending on the stage of the cancer and whether recurrence has occurred.
Cervical CancerCervical cancer is a malignancy of the cervix. It may present with vaginal bleeding but symptoms may be absent until the cancer is in its advanced stages, which has made cervical cancer the focus of intense screening efforts utilizing the Pap smear. Most scientific studies have found that human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is responsible for virtually all cases of cervical cancer. Treatment consists of surgery (including local excision) in early stages and chemotherapy and radiotherapy in advanced stages of the disease. Signs and symptomsThe early stages of cervical cancer may be completely asymptomatic . Vaginal bleeding, contact bleeding or (rarely) a vaginal mass may indicate the presence of malignancy. Also, moderate pain during sexual intercourse and vaginal discharge are symptoms of cervical cancer. In advanced disease, metastases may be present in the abdomen, or elsewhere. Symptoms of advanced cervical cancer may include: loss of appetite, weight loss, fatigue, pelvic pain, back pain, leg pain, single swollen leg, heavy bleeding from the vagina, leaking of urine or feces from the vagina, and bone fractures. The possibility to identify pre malignant changes on a cervical smear has made screening the major cause for referral of women with possible cervical neoplasia. In many countries, women are advised to have a regular Pap smear to check for pre malignant changes. Recommendations for how often a Pap smear should be done vary from once a year to once every five years. [[According to practice guidelines written by the ACS, recommendations for when to begin cervical cancer screening should begin approximately three years after the onset of vaginal intercourse and/or no later than twenty-one years of age.If cervical cancer is detected early, it can be treated without impairing fertility. Consistently abnormal smears may be a reason for further diagnosis despite complete absence of symptoms. DiagnosisDiagnosis is made by doing a biopsy of the cervix, which often involves colposcopy, or a magnified visual inspection of the cervix aided by using an acetic acid (e.g. vinegar) solution to highlight abnormal cells on the surface of the cervix (the portio). A Pap smear is insufficient for the diagnosis. Many researchers recommend that since more than 99% of invasive cervical cancers worldwide contain human papillomavirus, HPV testing should be carried out together with routine cervical screening. However, given the prevalence of HPV (around 80% infection history among the sexually active population) others suggest that routine HPV testing would cause undue alarm to carriers. Further diagnostic procedures are loop electrical excision procedure (LEEP) and , in which the inner lining of the cervix is removed to be examined pathologically. These are carried out if the biopsy confirms severe dysplasia. TreatmentMicro invasive cancer (stage IA) is usually treated by hysterectomy (removal of the whole uterus including part of the vagina). For stage IA2, the Lymph nodes are removed as well. An alternative for patients who desire to maintain fertility is a local surgical procedure such as a LEEP or cone biopsy. If a cone biopsy was not able to produce clear margins, there is one possible option left for those with early stage cervical cancer who would like to preserve their fertility while treating their cervical cancer: a trachelectomy. For those in stage I cervical cancer, which has not spread, this is a viable treatment option. It allows for the preservation of the ovaries and uterus while surgically removing the cervical cancer. This treatment option is not yet well known amongst doctors and is not yet considered a standard of care. Furthermore, few doctors are trained in this fertility sparing surgical option. Even the most experienced surgeon won't be able to promise that this can be performed beforehand, as the extent of the spread of cervical cancer is unknown until surgical microscopic examination is completed. As a result, there is always the possibility for the need to convert to a hysterectomy if the surgeon is not able to microscopically confirm clear margins of cervical tissue once the patient is under general anesthesia in the operating room. This can only be done during the same operation if the patient has given consent for a possible hysterectomy prior to the operation. Due to the fact of the possible risk of cancer spread to the lymph nodes in stage 1b cancers and some stage 1a cancers, the surgeon may also need to remove some lymph nodes from around the womb. Once all the checks have been done and if all is well, the cervix will be stitched closed with a cerclage. This will allow for menstruation and fertilization but not dilation for a vaginal delivery, therefore requiring any future births are delivered by cesarean section. A radical trachelectomy is a smaller operation than hysterectomy, but more importantly allows for the preservation of fertility. This operation can also be performed vaginally instead of abdominally, however there are conflicting opinions as to which approach is better. A radical abdominal trachelectomy with lymphadenecectomy usually only requires a 2- to 3-day hospital stay with most women recovering very quickly (approximately 6 weeks). Complications are generally uncommon, although women who are able to conceive after surgery are prone to pre term labor or possible late miscarriage. It is generally recommended to wait at least one year before attempting to become pregnant after surgery. Recurrence in the residual cervix is a very rare event as long as the cancer has been cleared with the trachelectomy. Even though recurrence is rare, it is generally recommended for patients to practice vigilant prevention and follow up care including pap screenings coloposcopy, with biopsies of the remaining lower uterine segment as needed (every 3-4 months for at least 5 years) to monitor for any recurrence in addition to minimizing any new exposures to HPV through safe sex practices until one is actively trying to conceive. Early stages (IB1 and IIA less than 4 cm) can be treated with radical hysterectomy with removal of the lymph nodes or radiation therapy. Radiation therapy is given as external beam radiotherapy to the pelvis and brachytherapy (internal radiation). For patients treated with surgery who have high risk features found on pathologic examination, radiation therapy with or without chemotherapy is given in order to reduce the risk of relapse. Larger early stage tumors (IB2 and IIA more than 4 cm) may be treated with radiation therapy and cisplatin-based chemotherapy, hysterectomy (which then usually requires adjuvant radiation therapy), or cisplatin chemotherapy followed by hysterectomy. Advanced stage tumors (IIB-IVA) are treated with radiation therapy and cisplatin-based chemotherapy. On June 15, 2006 Food and Drug Administration has approved uses combination of two chemotherapy drugs, Hycamtin and cisplatin for women with late-stage (IVB) cervical cancer treatment. Combination treatment has significant risk of neutropenia, anemia, and thrombocytopenia side effects. Hycamtin is manufactured by GlaxoSmithKline. EpidemiologyWorldwide, cervical cancer is the fifth most frequent cancer in women, when ordered by number of deaths. Cervical cancer affects about 16 per 100,000 women per year and causes death in about 9 per 100,000 per year. In the United States, however, cervical cancer is only the 8th most common cancer of women. In 1998, about 12,800 women were diagnosed with cervical cancer in the United States and about 4,800 died (Canavan & Doshi, 2000). Among gynecological cancers it ranks behind endoetrial cancer and ovarian cancer. The incidence and mortality figure for the U.S. are about half that of the rest of the world, a difference which can be attributed in part to the success of screening with the Pap smear. In Great Britain, the incidence is inline with that of the rest of Northern Europe with an annual incidence of 8.8/100,000 (2001) and an annual mortality of 2.8/100,000 (2003)(Cancer Research UK Cervical cancer statistics for the UK). With a 42% reduction from 1988-1997 the NHS implemented screening programme has been highly successful, screening the highest risk age group (25-49 years) every 3 years, and those ages 50-64 every 5 years. A study published in 2002 (Castellsagué et al) reports that male circumcision can reduce the risk of penile human papillomavirus (HPV) infection in the man, and as a result that of cervical cancer in his female partner. The authors do state that "it would not make sense to promote circumcision as a way to control cervical cancer in the United States, where Pap smears usually detect it at a treatable stage". In contrast to this claim, Menczer (2004) quotes research that male circumcision probably does not contribute to a lower incidence of cervical cancer in Jewish populations. One study suggests that prostaglandin in semen may fuel the growth of cervical and uterine tumours and that affected women might benefit from the use of condoms. Stereotactic Radio surgeryStereotactic Radio surgery uses sophisticated 3-D computerized imaging to precisely target a narrow x-ray beam and deliver a high concentrated dose of radiation to the affected area. Stereotactic Radio surgery is not surgery in the conventional sense because there is no incision involved and general anesthesia is not required for adults. Staged Radio surgery, also known as fractionated stereotactic Radio surgery (FSR), is a process in which the total dose of stereotactic radiation is divided into several smaller doses of radiation, on separate days of treatment. Typically, this consists of two to five treatments. In some cases, staged treatment effectively kills the tumor while seemingly decreasing potential side effects compared with single dose Radio surgery The treatment team is comprised of a number of specialized medical professionals, including a radiation oncologist, neurosurgeon, medical radiation physicist, dosimetrist, radiation therapist, radiation therapy nurse, and neurologist or neuro-oncologist. The radiation oncologist and neurosurgeon oversee treatment and interpret the results of these procedures. Treatment UsesUnlike conventional whole brain radiation in which a person receives a small amount of radiation every day over several weeks just once in their lifetime, stereotactic Radio surgery may be repeated. Patients can receive stereotactic Radio surgery in addition to whole brain radiation. This technology allows high doses of radiation to be delivered to the tumor with minimal exposure to surrounding healthy tissue. Stereotactic Radio surgery is a noninvasive treatment option for many patients with abnormal blood vessels in the brain such as arteriovenous malformations (AVMs), arteriovenous fistulas (AVFs), brain tumors, and trigeminal neuralgia. Types of Stereotactic Radio surgeryGamma KnifeAfter a stereotactic frame is attached to the patient's head using pins, computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are taken of the brain to determine the precise location of the tumor. If the patient has an AVM, an angiogram and CT scan are performed with the frame attached. The Gamma Knife consists of a sphere containing 201 Cobolt-60 sources. These sources are positioned so that the beams are targeted to a point within a cavity in the instrument where the patient's head is placed and covered by a helmet which narrows the beams and shields the head from unwanted radiation. The radiation is controlled by the percentage of the 201 ports that are used, the number of exposures and the head position. Computer-guided dosimetry is specified to match the lesion. Different beam sizes are available by using different helmets with holes of various sizes. Lesions from 5 to 40 millimeters can be treated. By performing multiple exposures and by readjusting the helmet and head position, different lesion shapes can be achieved. This procedure takes approximately 30 minutes. Linear Accelerator (LINAC)After a stereotactic frame is attached to the patient's head by pins, computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are taken of the brain to determine the precise location of the tumor. If the patient has an AVM, an angiogram and CT scan are performed with the frame attached. Computer-guided dosimetry is specified to match the lesion. Lesions up to 3.5 centimeters in diameter can be treated. A cone that approximates the size of the lesion is placed in the collimator of the linear accelerator. Cones range in size from 12.5 mm to 40 mm. The patient is placed lying on his or her back on the treatment couch of the linear accelerator. The head is secured to prevent movement while receiving treatment. Radiation is targeted at the lesion from different directions called arcs. A predetermined amount of radiation is delivered in an arc and then the treatment couch is rotated along with the collimator housing the cone. This sequence continues until the therapy is complete. The number of arcs used varies from at least four to six and takes approximately 30 minutes. Some devices, like the Cyber Knife, do not use frames, but masks to hold the head in place. Multiple manufacturers make this type of machine, which have brand names such as Peacock, X-Knife, Cyber Knife, Clinac, etc. BenefitsThis technology makes it possible for neurosurgeons to reach the deepest recesses of the brain and correct disorders not treatable with conventional surgery. Since there is no incision, surgical risks such as infection are not an issue, and there is little discomfort. Adult patients may be lightly sedated but are awake throughout the procedure. Hospitalization is short and at most, requires an overnight stay. The majority of patients are treated on an outpatient basis. As a result, patients have less discomfort and much shorter recovery periods. RecoveryFollowing stereotactic Radio surgery, bandages are usually placed over the pin sites from the stereotactic frame, which should be removed the following day. Patients may be observed for a specified time after the treatment before they go home, or they may be kept in the hospital overnight for observation. Some people experience minimal tenderness around the pin sites. Occasionally, swelling may also occur around the pin sites. Most patients can return to their usual activities the following day if swelling is not bothersome. Follow-upCustomarily, the neurosurgeon will want to see the patient in the office about one month after the procedure. A neurological examination will be performed. Often, a diagnostic test such as a CT scan or MRI will be performed about six months after the procedure to check on the status of the radiated area. These changes may take from one to three years to take effect TopKidney CancerKidneys are a pair of organs at the back of the abdomen that filter the blood to remove waste products, which they convert into urine. From each kidney, the urine is carried to the bladder by a tube called the ureter. When the bladder is full the urine passes out of the body through a tube called the urethra. The urethra opens immediately in front of the vagina in women and at the tip of the penis in men. 
The kidneys are part of the urinary tract. They make urine by removing wastes and extra water from the blood. Urine collects in a hollow space ( renal pelvis) in the middle of each kidney. It passes from the renal pelvis into the bladder through a tube called a ureter. Urine leaves the body through another tube (the urethra). The kidneys also make substances that help control blood pressure and the production of red blood cells. Understanding cancerCancer begins in cells, the building blocks that make up tissues. Tissues make up the organs of the body. Normally, cells grow and divide to form new cells as the body needs them. When cells grow old, they die, and new cells take their place. Sometimes this orderly process goes wrong. New cells form when the body does not need them, and old cells do not die when they should. These extra cells can form a mass of tissue called a growth or tumor. Tumors can be benign or malignant:
Malignant tumors are cancer
Causes of kidney cancerEach year, about 6200 people in the UK are diagnosed with kidney cancer Very little is known about the causes of cancer of the kidney. Research has shown that cigarette smoking increases the risk of developing cancer of the kidney. This cancer has also been linked to particular materials used in some industries, including cadmium, asbestos and lead (used in paints). certain medical conditions, such as diabetes, obesity, chronic kidney failure or high blood pressure (hypertension), may also increase the risk of developing cancer of the kidney. A small number of people who have an inherited condition known as von Hippel-Lindau syndrome are at a slightly increased risk of developing cancer of the kidney. Occasionally, certain types of cancer of the kidney will affect two or more members of the same family. If this occurs other family members may be at an increased risk themselves. Cancer of the kidney affects more men than women and occurs most commonly in middle-aged and older people, although there is an uncommon type ( Wilms' tumour, also known as nephroblastoma) that affects very young children. Cancer of the kidney, like other cancers, is not infectious and so cannot be passed on to other people. Usually only one kidney is affected. It is very rar for cancer to occur in the other kidney. Types of kidney cancerMost cancers – approximately 90% – that occur in the kidneys are known as renal cell cancers (RCC). They are sometimes called renal adenocarcinoma. There are different subtypes of renal cell cancer and these can be identified by looking at the cells under a microscope. The most common type is clear cell. Other, less common, types include papillary (or chromophilic), chromophobic, oncocytic, collecting duct and sarcomatoid. A rarer type of kidney cancer is known as transitional cell cancer (TCC), which starts in the cells lining the central area (pelvis) of the kidney. This section describes the tests and treatments for renal cell cancers. The tests and treatment for transitional cell cancer are very different. Symptoms of kidney cancer
Although these symptoms can be caused by conditions other than cancer of the kidney, such as an infection or stones in the bladder or kidneys, it is important to get them checked by your doctor. Most people with any of the above symptoms will not have cancer of the kidney. Sometimes cancer of the kidney may not cause any symptoms and is diagnosed following a scan carried out for a different reason. meant for kidney cancer Surgery is the main treatment for cancer of the kidney. In some people, hormonal treatment or can be used either after surgery or when a cancer cannot be removed surgically. Occasionally is used. In rare cases, cancer of the kidney will spontaneously improve without any treatment, but this is not usual. Methods of treatmentPeople with kidney cancer may have surgery, arterial embolization, biological therapy, or Some may have a combination of treatments radiation therapy. At any stage of disease, people with kidney cancer may have treatment to control pain and other symptoms, to relieve the side effects of therapy, and to ease emotional and practical problems. This kind of treatment is called supportive care, symptom management, or palliative care. A patient may want to talk to the doctor about taking part in a clinical trial, a research study of new treatment methods. The section on "The Promise of Cancer Research" has more information about clinical trials. SurgerySurgery is the most common treatment for kidney cancer. It is a type of local therapy. It treats cancer in the kidney and the area close to the tumor. An operation to remove the kidney is called a nephrectomy . There are several types of nephrectomies. The type depends mainly on the stage of the tumor. The doctor can explain each operation and discuss which is most suitable for the patient:
Arterial embolizationArterial embolization is a type of local therapy that shrinks the tumor. Sometimes it is done before an operation to make surgery easier. When surgery is not possible, embolization may be used to help relieve the symptoms of kidney cancer. The doctor inserts a narrow tube (catheter) into a blood vessel in the leg. The tube is passed up to the main blood vessel (renal artery) that supplies blood to the kidney. The doctor injects a substance into the blood vessel to block the flow of blood into the kidney. The blockage prevents the tumor from getting oxygen and other substances it needs to grow. Radiation therapyRadiation therapy (also called radiotherapy) is another type of local therapy. It uses high-energy rays to kill cancer cells. It affects cancer cells only in the treated area. A large machine directs radiation at the body. The patient has treatment at the hospital or clinic, 5 days a week for several weeks. A small number of patients have radiation therapy before surgery to shrink the tumor. Some have it after surgery to kill cancer cells that may remain in the area. People who cannot have surgery may have radiation therapy to relieve pain and other problems caused by the cancer. Biological therapyBiological therapy is a type of systemic therapy. It uses substances that travel through the bloodstream, reaching and affecting cells all over the body. Biological therapy uses the body's natural ability (immune system) to fight cancer. For patients with metastatic kidney cancer, the doctor may suggest interferon alpha or interleukin-2 (also called IL-2 or aldesleukin). The body normally producesthese substances in small amounts in response to infections and other diseases. For cancer treatment, they are made in the laboratory in large amounts. ChemotherapyChemotherapy is also a type of systemic therapy. Anticancer drugs enter the bloodstream and travel throughout the body. Although useful for many other cancers, anticancer drugs have shown limited use against kidney cancer. However, many doctors are studying new drugs and new combinations that may prove more helpful. The section on "The Promise of Cancer Research" has more information about these studies. Benefits and disadvantages of treatmentMany people are frightened at the thought of having cancer treatments, particularly because of the potential side effects that can occur. Some people ask what would happen if they do not have any treatment. Although many of the treatments can cause side effects, these can often be well controlled with medicines. Treatmentcan be given for different reasons and the potential benefits will vary depending upon the individual situation.Early-stage kidney cancer In people with early-stage kidney cancer, surgery is often done with the aim of curing the cancer. Occasionally additional treatments are given to help reduce the risks of it coming back. Advanced-stage kidney cancerIf the cancer is at a more advanced stage, treatment may only be able to control it, leading to an improvement in symptoms and a better quality of life. However, for some people the treatment will have no effect upon the cancer and they will get the side effects without any of the benefit. Current legal Status of Kidney Transplant in India is as follows; "As per the rules of our country, only a relative who is compatible can donate a kidney to the patient. Among the relatives, there is a category called the near relatives which is parents, siblings, children and spouse. People in this category can donate the kidney if they are medically compatible without the permission of the Government. Any other relative not belonging to this category in addition to being medically suitable, the permission from the Respective Government needsto be taken. Prostate CancerOverviewAge :This is the strongest risk factor for prostate cancer. The disease is rare in men younger than 45 even though incidence has been reported, but the chance of getting it goes up sharply as a man ages. Family history :Genetics plays an important role in development of prostate cancer. If a family member has suffered from prostatic cancer, the chance of developingthe same disease goes up . Race :Prostate cancer is more common in African American men. It is less common in Asian men. But this fact could be hardly comforting to the person who is affected with prostatic cancer. StatisticsEvery year over 232,090 men are diagnosed with prostate cancer, and about 30,350 die. If detected early, prostate cancer is often treatable.1 in 6 men is at a lifetime risk of prostate cancer A man with one close relative with the disease has double the risk. With two close relatives, his risk is five-fold. With three, the chance is 97%. Two men every five minutes are diagnosed with prostate cancer. Men with a body mass index over 32.5 have about a one-third greater risk of dying from prostate cancer than men who are not obese. Prostate cancer is mainly found in men age 55 or over with an average age of 70 at the time of diagnosis Majority of deaths from prostate cancer are related to advanced disease with metastases Knowing more about the prostate and prostate cancer is the first step in coming to terms with a diagnosis of prostate cancer. The following sections describes the prostate, the causes and risk factors and signs and symptoms of prostate cancer. Signs & symptomsEarly-stage prostate cancer may not be associated with any obvious signs or symptoms, or may cause symptoms that can be mistaken for those of other disorders. Most cases of prostate cancer are not detected until they have spread out of the prostate and begin to cause noticeable symptoms. The signs and symptoms of prostate cancer may include Pelvic pain Frequent need for urination Difficult or painful urination Blood in the urine Painful ejaculation Loss of appetite and weight Bone pain DiagnosisProstatic Specific Antigen (PSA) :This is a screening test for prostate cancer. This blood test is not the final diagnosis of cancer as it may be elevated in cases of chronic Prostate Enlargement and Prostatitits ( Infection of prostate) Digital Rectal Examination :A physical examination by Urologist may give a clue as to whether a person might be suffering from prostate cancer or not. Trans rectal Ultrasound :Ultrasound examination helps in reaching a conclusion about suspicious glands Prostate Biopsy :A final confirmation of the Prostate cancer is through tissue biopsy. TreatmentEarly Stage :Prostaectomy means removal of the prostate gland and it can be done through Open Incision or closed method through Laser. Advanced StageOrchidectomy is done along with Prostatectomy. Hormone therapy may be started The bottom line is that early detection can lead to cure. This should be done before the cancer spreads to other organs |
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